Bill Gates chose where to build his first nuclear plant
Metal fuel with high dosage of low enriched uranium and sodium as refrigerant. A compact plant that will be built in 2028 near a city in Wyoming (US)
TerraPower, the startup co-founded by Bill Gates, has chosen the city of Kemmerer, Wyoming, to install the first demonstration reactor which will see the light in 2028 and which will use the new Natrium nuclear technology.
The site was chosen taking into consideration a number of technical and geological factors, such as the low seismicity of the area, as well as the support of the community that accepted the development of the project on its territory.
The TerraPower facility will cost approximately $ 4 billion, half of which is funded by the US Department of Energy’s Advanced Reactor Demonstration program. The reactor will have an estimated life of 60 years and will provide 345 MW of electricity, but plans include an increase in capacity to 500 MW.
Natrium, stored heat and sodium as a coolant
This new nuclear design is developed by TerraPower and GE-Hitachi, and it takes the registered name of Natrium. The technology uses a sodium reactor to produce heat can be used to generate electricity immediately or be held in thermal storage reserves for hours.
Liquid sodium metal is used as a reactor coolant instead of water. Sodium has a higher boiling point and can absorb more heat than water, which means that high pressure does not build up inside the reactor, reducing the risk of an explosion.
In addition, the whole system is much more compact and the use of sodium as a coolant allows the use of 80% less concrete per MWe than in current large reactors.
As for the fuel, the Natrium reactor uses HALEU, a metal fuel with a high dosage of low-enriched uranium. HALEU belongs to a new class of nuclear fuels in which the uranium-235 isotope content is greater than 5%, but less than 20% with respect the usual ones. The use of the HALEU also contributes to making the dimensions of the reactor more compact.
Natrium plants do not require an external power source to operate their cooling systems, which can be an advantage in the event of an emergency shutdown. In the case of the Fukushima disaster, for example, the tsunami damaged the diesel generators that powered the backup cooling system.
The $ 4 billion cost of the demonstration plant in Wyoming is influenced by the youth of the technology and HALEU fuel not yet available on a commercial scale. When the Natrium design reaches economies of scale, a single plant is expected to cost $ 1 billion.
The Space Catapult
Can you send something into space by throwing it with the slingshot? Yes, if the slingshot is big and powerful enough … The idea is less crazy than it seems: on October 22nd the Californian start-up SpinLaunch successfully completed the first test of its innovative launch system based with centrifuge force.
SPACE CAROUSEL.The space rocket is projected towards the cosmos by a large rotating arm that accelerates until it reaches a tangential velocity equal to several times that of sound. The capsule is then released and launched in the direction of space.
The launch platform, about 50 meters high, is similar to a gigantic carousel: once the caspsula is attached to the arm the entire structure is pressurized, the air is expelled so as to reduce friction and the projectile is put in rotation until reaching the speed necessary to overcome the force of gravity.
In the test flight, a “bullet” about 3 meters long was used which reached a height of several thousand meters. The capsule then descended to the ground with a parachute, but the idea is that, once the thrust given by the catapult is exhausted, it continues its journey to Space thanks to a rocket.
The objective of this first flight was to test the launch structure and verify its operating parameters in real conditions.
SIMPLE AND CHEAP. What advantages does this launch system offer compared to conventional ones? According to its creators, the catapult will allow you to send loads of material into space at much lower costs than today, because it will use much less fuel.
The initial thrust will be provided by kinetic energy and this will allow the construction of smaller, lighter and less complex spacecraft than the current ones … obviously the catapult cannot be used to send humans into space.
ALMOST READY. The company’s goal is now to build an even larger platform, which will allow loads of up to 200 kg to be sent into orbit in reusable capsules. The new spaceport will probably be built along the coast and will be able to carry out dozens of launches per day, since the centrifuge does not require special setups or preparations between flights.
In the next six months, at least thirty suborbital flights are planned to collect useful data for the design of the new plant. SpinLaunch was founded in 2014 by Jonathan Yaney and has raised over $ 110 million in funding from several companies including Google and Airbus. Virtually unknown until a few weeks ago, it will probably make much talk about in the next years.
The Nuclear Rocket that could reach Alpha Centauri only in 120 years
The nuclear salt-water rocket (NSWR, literally nuclear saltwater rocket) is a theoretical design of a nuclear thermal rocket by Robert Zubrin, an American aerospace engineer.
This rocket is expected to use 20% enriched plutonium or uranium salts as fuel. Its characteristics make this project remain, even if a little bizarre, in any case faithful to science as no exotic materials or new physics are envisaged for its realization, as medium.com explains.
Main advantage? The speed
The main advantage of this rocket would be its speed since it could propel itself at a speed equal to a fraction of light.
Thanks to a prolonged and controlled nuclear reaction, the rocket would be propelled by the heating of the fluid composed of uranium (or plutonium) salts as it flows through the engine.
Hot exhaust emissions
Rocket’s exhaust emissions would be at least 100 times hotter than those of a normal chemical rocket and the temperatures of the latter usually tend to easily exceed 3000 ° C.
An exhaust system to be able to withstand such high temperatures would have to be made of a special material, probably not yet identified, and the walls of the tank should also absorb neutrons (in this case, boron could be used as a base material for absorption) to avoid uncontrolled nuclear reactions.
It would be the most powerful rocket ever built
It is an objectively difficult engine to design but it would be, if it were really built, the most powerful ever built since it could develop a power of 700 Gigawatts.
Such a rocket would allow it to reach the outermost planets of the solar system (from Jupiter onwards) in a few months.
With uranium enriched to 90% it could reach Alpha Centauri
And to reach the other stars? In this case we would need not 20% enriched uranium but 90% enriched uranium. With a 330-ton spacecraft, explains medium.com, with a fuel load of 3,000 tons and 90% enriched uranium, it could reach 3% the speed of light. A speed that would allow to reach the nearest solar system, that of Alpha Centauri, in about 120 years, therefore in 2-3 generations.
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Aerodynamics Challanges of Supersonic Flight
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A) Rapid increase of drag coefficient at Transonic speed => Need to be minimized by streamlined shape
The force of drag is proportional to the coefficient of drag (Cd), to the square of the airspeed and to the air density. Drag rises rapidly with speed, therefore a key priority of supersonic aircraft design is to minimize this force by lowering the coefficient of drag. To minimize the drag, streemlined shapes are used. Indeed according the drag equation:
the drag force on any object is proportional to the reference area, density of the fluid and proportional to the square of the relative flow speed between the object and the fluid. Nearby Match=1 the Cd reach the highest value, Supersonic aircraft also manage drag by flying at higher altitudes than subsonic aircraft, where the air density is lower.
The coefficient of drag (Cd) is higher at speed of sound due to the propagation property of air itselft.
B) Phenomenon of Wave Drag that increases the total drag
The wave drag is a component of the aerodynamic drag on aircraft wings due to the presence of shock waves. Wave drag is independent of viscous effects, and tends to present itself as a sudden and dramatic increase in drag as the vehicle increases speed to the Critical Mach number. It is the sudden and dramatic rise of wave drag that leads to the concept of a sound barrier. The effect is typically seen on aircraft at transonic speeds (about Mach 0.8), but it is possible to notice the problem at any speed over that of the critical Mach of that aircraft. Supersonic aircraft must have considerably more power than subsonic aircraft require to overcome this wave drag.
C) Low Lift to Drag Ratio at supersonic speed
At supersonic speeds, airfoils generate lift in an entirely different manner than at subsonic speeds, and are invariably less efficient. For this reason, considerable research has been put into designing wing planforms for sustained supersonic cruise. At about Mach 2, a typical wing design will cut its L/D ratio in half (e.g., Concorde managed a ratio of 7.14, whereas the subsonic Boeing 747 has an L/D ratio of 17). Because an aircraft’s design must provide enough lift to overcome its own weight, a reduction of its L/D ratio at supersonic speeds requires additional thrust to maintain its airspeed and altitude.
Developed fluorescing composite material that inspects itself
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Researchers have developed a lightweight composite material suitable for use in the aerospace applications that inspects itself, it changes colour as soon as it is deformed.
Lightweight composites are increasingly being used for load-bearing applications across transport industries including aerospace, in addition to traditional lightweight metals such as aluminium or titanium. According to ETH Zurich, this is driving a need to develop new techniques and methods for the early detection of damage to or even the possible failure of such as yet understudied materials.
The researchers from the Complex Materials Group at ETH Zurich in Switzerland have created the lightweight material from plastic polymer and artificial nacre or mother-of-pearl. The material changes colour to indicate internal deformation and thus indicates possible material failure at an early stage.
Composed of alternating layers, their laminate is translucent, break-resistant and yet very lightweight.
Artificial nacre is a speciality of the Complex Materials Laboratory and is modelled on the biological example of the mussel shell. It consists of countless glass platelets arranged in parallel, which are compacted, sintered and solidified using an polymeric resin. This makes it extremely hard and break-resistant.
The second layer consists of a polymer to which the researchers have added an indicator molecule synthesised specifically for this application at the University of Fribourg, Switzerland. The molecule is activated as soon as the polymer experiences stretching forces, and this changes its fluorescence. The more the material stretches and the more of these molecules are activated, the more intense the fluorescence becomes.
Fluorescence indicates overstressed parts
“We used fluorescent molecules because you can measure the increase in fluorescence very well and you don’t have to rely on subjective perception,” said Tommaso Magrini, lead author of the study, which was recently published in the journal ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces.
With the help of fluorescence, the researchers can identify overstressed areas within the composite material before fractures form. This allows early detection of vulnerable areas in a structure before catastrophic failure occurs.
Possible applications of the laminate is in components in the load-bearing structures found in buildings, aircraft or vehicles, where it is essential to detect their failure at an early stage.
So far, it exists only at laboratory scale as a proof of concept, and the next step for researchers is to assess if the material can be produced on an industrial scale.
Effects of Covid-19 Pandemic on Air Traffic
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The 2020 is the worst year in the history of air transport according to the IATA (International Air Transport Association). A drop in global passenger traffic by -65.9% compared to 2019, with -75.6 % for international flights and -48.8% for domestic ones. “Last year was a catastrophe”, says Alexandre de Juniac, director general of IATA: “the timid recovery that took place in the northern hemisphere during the summer did nothing against the new autumn stop and the almost total absence of passengers during the Christmas holidays ».
The greatest collapse of ari traffic was registered Asia, with -80.3% compared to 2019 and -94.7% during the month of December due to generalized lockdowns. In 2020 air traffic in Europe fell by -73.7% compared to 2019, and by -82.3% in December.
MAYDAY! To make matters worse, the fact that there is still no light at the end of the tunnel: IATA predicts that 2021 will be another disastrous year for airlines, after a January in which bookings have dropped by 70% compared to the same period in 2020. Passengers face a series of uncoordinated and rapidly changing global restrictions, explains de Juniac, who calls on governments to help the sector.
The graph illustrates the global trend in passenger air traffic, calculated using the RPK (passenger revenue kilometers, a value that indicates the number of passengers transported for each kilometer flown) as the unit of measurement, compared to 2019. The blue dotted line shows the most optimistic forecasts for 2021, while the red one predicts the trend influenced by the spread of the new variants of the coronavirus.
WILL IT GET WORSE? If the most optimistic forecasts for 2021 indicate a return to about half of the pre-pandemic air traffic levels, with the spread of the new variants of the coronavirus, the risk is that the recovery will be slower, and that it will only be possible to reach 38% of the 2019 . “With the start of the vaccination campaign we were optimistic, we hoped that normalcy could soon be restored to air travel”, says de Juniac, “but this optimism soon vanished with the spread of the new variants of the coronavirus and the consequent resurgence of infections. ”
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SpaceX Successfully Landed Starship For The First Time – Before It Exploded
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Earlier today, SpaceX successfully landed its SN10 Starship prototype in an upright position… before it blew up a few minutes later.
This was the first time SpaceX landed its Starship prototype, even if it eventually caught in flames. The rocket landed after reaching 10 km (6.2 miles in altitude) and turned around to perform a beautiful descent. The prototype came upright on the landing pad, but on an angle – potentially due to issues with the landing legs.
Right now it’s too soon to say exactly what went wrong – but the fact that the prototype was able to land at all is an incredibly promising sign. Starship is the rocket SpaceX hopes will eventually go to Mars. You can watch the entire livestream of the launch and landing below, courtesy of NASA Spaceflight:
SpaceX’s Starship SN10 rocket prototype explodes after a successful liftoff and soft landing at the company’s South Texas launch site on March 3, 2021. This view was provided by SPadre.com. (Image credit: Spadre.com via YouTube)
Status of Starship & SuperHeavy prototypes
SN10 – SpaceX assembly diagram:
Previous attempts to launch a Starship prototype around 10 km (6.2 miles) into the air and then land it again have also ended in explosions on the landing pad. This time, the prototype at least survived the initial landing, so this certainly counts as progress.
It was the second launch attempt on 3 March 2021 out of SpaceX’s facilities in Boca Chica, South Texas, after a last-minute issue caused today’s first attempt to be aborted. In regards to the first abort, Elon Musk explained an onboard computer received data that an engine was producing more thrust than anticipated, as ArsTechnica reports. That can be adjusted in the flight software, which is why another launch attempt has been lined up so quickly.
While previous Starship prototypes have launched successfully, upon landing the rockets have exploded. This time around, Musk has estimated that the Starship prototype had about a 60 percent chance of surviving the landing attempt. In order to cut the cost of space travel dramatically, SpaceX wants to make the rockets reusable, just like the Falcon 9 model which has taken both cargo and passengers successfully to the International Space Station.
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New Hydrogen Fuel Cell Operable Prototype for Electric Aircraft
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HyPoint has unveiled the first operable prototype version of its turbo air-cooled hydrogen fuel cell system, as the Menlo Park, California-based green energy startup prepares to support validation and testing of its system for a variety of aircraft types and powertrain configurations.
Testing has shown that HyPoint’s turbo air-cooled hydrogen fuel cell system will be able to achieve up to 2,000 watts per kilogram of specific power. Dr. Alex Ivanenko, founder and CEO of HyPoint, told Avionics International that their technology has drawn interest from a wide range of aircraft developers from electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) jet makers to other startups developing hydrogen powertrains for turboprop aircraft.
Ivanenko said the length of an electric aircraft flight the full-scale version of their fuel cell system can support will depend on a number of different factors.
“It depends on configurations, we’re looking at a range from two hours to six hours, and we can provide different configurations. Flight time is really a question of hydrogen storage. What kind of hydrogen storage would you like to use? If it’s a gaseous form or liquid form, for example, you’ll be able to support a longer or shorter flight,” Ivanenko said.
Among the testing that has already been done by HyPoint on the prototype, they have demonstrated the ability to generate up to 1,500 watt-hours per kilogram of energy density. Thermal management in the fuel cell system is achieved by using bipolar plates and corrosion-resistant coating.
A technical white paper published by HyPoint explaining the design of their turbo air-cooled system says that the idea behind their approach is to circulate high-pressure air through a fuel cell stack, or a bundle of fuel cells, and to recirculate the exhaust air. By re-distributing exhaust air across fuel cell stack inlets, they’re able to save energy that would otherwise be spent by the system on compressing fresh air.
Rendering of the full-scale version in a turboprop engine.
150 kW Turbo Air-Cooled HTPEM Fuel Cell
“As long as the air contains sufficient oxygen it can be reused,” the white paper notes.
HyPoint also announced that it will begin work with the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) to further test and validate its hydrogen fuel cell technology. NREL’s hydrogen and fuel cell research and development focuses on developing, integrating, and demonstrating hydrogen production and delivery, hydrogen storage, and fuel cell technologies for transportation, stationary, and portable applications.
“We generate electricity from hydrogen,” Ivanenko said. “Our fuel cell system uses a chemical reaction to transform the chemical energy of hydrogen into electricity.”
In December 2020, HyPoint was named a winner of NASA’s iTech Initiative, in which inventive technologies were ranked based on criteria that included technical viability, likely impact on future space exploration, benefits to humanity, and commercialization potential. The startup also claims that its high-temperature (HTPEM) fuel cell system is “three times lighter” than comparable low-temperature (LTPEM) fuel cell systems.
One partner that HyPoint is working with, ZeroAvia, completed a hydrogen-electric aircraft flight in September 2020 and went on to raise $21.4 million from Amazon, Shell, and a Bill Gates-backed fund.
“The reality is that hydrogen fuel cells are the technological driver behind e-aircraft and we are working closely with the team at HyPoint to test their systems for potential integration into future ZeroAvia aircraft,” Val Miftakhov, founder and CEO of ZeroAvia said in a March 2 press release.
Ivanenko said that the main customers HyPoint will be targeting moving forward include aircraft designers, manufacturers, and powertrain OEMs among others. HyPoint expects the system will be ready for testing at the beginning of 2022 and commercialized in 2023, at a price point of between $100-500 per kilowatt (if mass-produced).
“This functional prototype brings us one step closer to our vision of delivering efficient and cost-effective zero-carbon emission fuel cell technology to the aviation industry,” Ivanenko said. “This year, we’re going to build a full-scale version of the system, and prepare for commercialization in different markets.”
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Ground testing for NASA’s all-Electric X-57
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NASA is set to start high-voltage functional ground testing of its first all-electric X-plane, the X-57 Maxwell, which will perform flights to help develop certification standards for emerging electric aircraft.
NASA is also supporting these new electric aircraft by developing quiet, efficient, reliable technology these vehicles will need in routine use. The testing will take place at NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center in Edwards, California, marking a pivotal milestone for the project as NASA proceeds from the component design and prototype phase to operation of the vehicle as an integrated aircraft, taking a critical step closer toward taxi tests and first flight.
The X-57, currently in its first configuration as an electric aircraft, called Mod 2, will use a battery support system for this phase of testing, drawing power from a large, high-voltage power supply as development on the X-plane’s battery control system nears completion.
Testing is expected to start with low power, checking the startup and shutdown sequences and verifying that the new motor control software boots up and controls the motors as expected. This software and other major components were recently redesigned based on lessons learned from previous testing by the project’s prime contractor, Empirical Systems Aerospace (ESAero), of San Luis Obispo, California.
These tests will include higher-power operation of the vehicle. The first pair of electric cruise motors to fly on the X-57, which were delivered by ESAero, will be powered up and activated, allowing engineers to ensure that the vehicle’s propellers spin as designed.
This will be followed by throttling up the motors to make sure they provide all the power intended, validating the vehicle’s instrumentation system, and verifying whether all the sensors installed across the aircraft are functional.
This high-voltage testing will feed directly into final verification and validation testing, a critical final step before taxi tests begin.
“Many of the team members operating this test will be the same ones who will be sitting in the control room for flight, and that’s why I’m excited,” said Sean Clarke, NASA’s X-57 principal investigator. “We’ve turned a corner from system design and lab tests, to turning it over to the NASA flight systems and operations engineers to actually operate the vehicle. What they’re learning in this test, they’ll take with them into the control room for first flight.” NASA’s all-electric X-57 Maxwell prepares for ground vibration testing at NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center in California Credits: NASA Photo / Lauren Hughes
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Rocket Lab Unveiled plans for a big new rocket called Neutron
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The private launch company Rocket Lab unveiled its plans to launch a big, new rocket called Neutron by 2024 on Monday (March 1), turning away from its longstanding commitment to launch tiny satellites exclusively on small boosters.
The pivot comes as the company prepares to go public following a planned merger with Vector Acquisition Corporation. Scaling up from the company’s standby Electron rocket marks the second recent change of plans toward long-scorned opportunities and is meant to take advantage of burgeoning interest in establishing megaconstellation networks of satellites, like SpaceX’s Starlink. The Neutron rocket will also be capable of launching astronauts, Rocket Lab said. “There are some things we said we would never do, but we’re going to build a big rocket,” Rocket Lab CEO Peter Beck said in a video announcing Neutron released on March 1.
Last year, the company began working toward making Electron reusable, a path it long said it would not take. Beck had flippantly promised to eat his hat should the company move toward reusability, hence scenes of him chopping up a Rocket Lab baseball cap in a blender before appearing to consume a pinch of the fibers.(Please, don’t try this at home.)
The Neutron rocket will stand 130 feet tall (40 meters) and be able to launch payloads of up to 8 metric tons (18,000 lbs. or 8,000 kilograms) to low Earth orbit and deliver up to 4,400 lbs. (2,000 kg) to the moon. An illustration of Neutron shows what appear to be landing legs to recover the booster after launch, a method similar to that used by SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rockets.
A diagram showing Rocket Lab’s planned Neutron rocket, a medium-lift vehicle the company intends to launch in 2024. (Image credit: Rocket Lab)
For comparison, Rocket Lab’s Electron booster is 59 feet tall (18 m) and can carry payloads of just over 660 lbs. (300 kg) for small satellite launches. Rocket Lab aims to recover Electron boosters by having them parachute to Earth and catching them in mid-air with a helicopter.
Neutron will fly in 2024, according to the announcement, and will be both reusable and rated for human spaceflight, Beck said in the video, in which he stands inside half of the future rocket’s fairing, or nosecone. The rocket will launch from the company’s new pad at NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia, where the company also plans to launch future Electron missions.
Rocket Lab’s primary launch site, Launch Complex 1, on the Māhia Peninsula in New Zealand, where the company is building a second pad near its main launching ground. The U.S. launch site is designated Launch Complex 2.
Rocket Lab’s next mission, called “They Go Up So Fast,” is scheduled to launch from New Zealand later this month. It will carry seven small satellites for a variety of commercial and government customers, including the U.S. Army’s Space and Missile Defense Command. The mission will fly Rocket Lab’s Photon Pathstone spacecraft to test technologies for a moon mission for NASA launching later this year.
The Neutron announcement comes as Rocket Lab merges with Vector Acquisition Corporation. When the two companies finalize the arrangement later this year, the resulting company, which will use the Rocket Lab name, will be listed on the Nasdaq stock exchange, according to a statement from the companies. The deal values Rocket Lab at just over $4 billion.
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